Smoke Detection and Fire Extinguishing Systems
Smoke Detectors
A smoke detection system monitors the lavatories and cargo baggage compartments for the presence of smoke, which is indicative of a fire condition. Smoke detection instruments that collect air for sampling are mounted in the compartments in strategic locations. A smoke detection system is used where the type of fire anticipated is expected to generate a substantial amount of smoke before temperature changes are sufficient to actuate a heat detection system.
Two common types used are
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Light Refraction
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Ionization
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Light Refraction Type
The light refraction type of smoke detector contains a photoelectric cell that detects light refracted by smoke particles. Smoke particles refract the light to the photoelectric cell and, when it senses enough change in the amount of light, it creates an electrical current that sets off a warning light. This type of smoke detector is referred to as a photo electrical device.
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Ionization Type
Some aircraft use an ionization type smoke detector. The system generates an alarm signal (both horn and indicator) by detecting a change in ion density due to smoke in the cabin. The system is connected to the 28-volt DC electrical power supplied from the aircraft. Alarm output and sensor sensitive checks are performed simply with the test switch on the control panel.
Flame Detectors / Optical Sensor
Optical sensors, often referred to as flame detectors, are designed to alarm when they detect the presence of prominent, specific radiation emissions from hydrocarbon flames.
The two types of optical sensors available are infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV), based on the specific emission wavelengths that they are designed to detect. IR-based optical flame detectors are used primarily on light turboprop aircraft and helicopter engines. These sensors have proven to be very dependable and economical for these applications.
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When radiation emitted by the fire crosses the airspace between the fire and the detector, it impinges on the detector front face and window. The window allows a broad spectrum of radiation to pass into the detector where it strikes the sensing device filter. The filter allows only radiation in a tight waveband centered on 4.3 micrometers in the IR band to pass on to the radiation-sensitive surface of the sensing device.
The radiation striking the sensing device minutely raises its temperature causing small thermoelectric voltages to be generated. These voltages are fed to an amplifier whose output is connected to various analytical electronic processing circuits. The processing electronics are tailored exactly to the time signature of all known hydrocarbon flame sources and ignores false alarm sources, such as incandescent lights and sunlight. Alarm sensitivity level is accurately controlled by a digital circuit.
OPTICAL SENSOR
Optical sensors sense the light emitted from a flame in much the same way that a person recognizes fires. Our brains can distinguish between the light energy from a fire and the light energy from another source, e.g. a light bulb. The optical fire detector (or sensor) also has to be able to make this distinction. Some aircraft use optical fire detectors in place of thermal detector elements to simplify the installation. Depending on the size of engine, several optical sensors may be required. The sensors are easier to install and maintain than linear detector elements.
Optical sensors offer the advantage of being able to monitor a specific volume of engine nacelle.
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The spectral analysis of a hydrocarbon fuel fire reveals peaks of energy in the infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV)
frequency bands. Optical fire detectors are designed to detect radiation in one or both of these frequency bands.
The type of detection technology used depends on a number of factors including the:
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speed of response to a fire
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ambient temperature for where the sensor is located
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likely source of potential false alarms.
One of the characteristics of burning fuel in an aircraft engine is the emission of IR radiation. A particular feature of a hydrocarbon fire is that it emits a high energy level at a nominal 4.4 micron band of the infrared radiation, referred to as the CO2 spike. This is caused by the emission of energy from excited CO2 molecules burning in the fuel.
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Detecting a fire is one thing; being able to discriminate against other light sources is a vital part of the optical detector’s performance.
Extraneous light sources that are capable of causing a nuisance alarm emit very low levels of radiation in this range. These sources include:
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lightning
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arc welding
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x-rays
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sunlight
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hot surfaces.
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An IR sensor designed for this specific frequency band provides a high level of reliable fire detection, while being relatively immune to nuisance alarm signals.
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The detection cell incorporates a pyro-electric cell and an optical filter; the latter only transmits radiation within the wavelength band of 4.2 to 4.7 microns. This is packaged in a one-inch-diameter, three- inches-long cylindrical housing with an optical window at one end and electrical connector at the other.
The pyro-electric detection cell responds to a fire by generating a signal when 4.4 micron radiation energy is detected. The optical fire detector has a cone of vision as illustrated in Fig. 16.10(b); 100% represents the maximum detection distance for a given fire. The sensitivity of the detector increases as the angle of incidence decreases.
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As with any fire detector (whether thermal or optical) the response time of the detector depends on the:
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size of the fire
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rate of propagation
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type of fuel burning
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distance from the detector.
Carbon Monoxide Detectors
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a byproduct of incomplete combustion. Its presence in the breathing air of human beings can be deadly. To ensure crew and passenger safety, carbon monoxide detectors are used in aircraft cabins and cockpits. They are most often found on reciprocating engine aircraft with exhaust shroud heaters and on aircraft equipped with a combustion heater. Turbine bleed air, when used for heating the cabin, is tapped off of the engine upstream of the combustion chamber. Therefore, no threat of carbon monoxide presence is posed.
Carbon monoxide gas is found in varying degrees in all smoke and fumes of burning carbonaceous substances. Exceedingly small amounts of the gas are dangerous if inhaled. A concentration of as little as 2 parts in 10,000 may produce headache, mental dullness, and physical lethargy within a few hours. Prolonged exposure or higher concentrations may cause death.
There are several types of carbon monoxide detectors. Electronic detectors are common. Some are panel mounted and others are portable. Chemical color-change types are also common. These are mostly portable. Some are simple buttons, cards, or badges that have a chemical applied to the surface. Normally, the color of the chemical is tan. In the presence of carbon monoxide, the chemical darkens to grey or even black. The transition time required to change color is inversely related to the concentration of CO present.
At 50 parts per million, the indication is apparent within 15 to 30 minutes. A concentration of 100 parts per million changes the color of the chemical in as little as 2–5 minutes. As concentration increases or duration of exposure is prolonged, the color evolves from grey to dark grey to black. If contaminated, installing a new indicating element allows a carbon monoxide portable test unit to be returned to service.
Extinguishing Agents and Portable Fire Extinguisher
There must be at least one hand held, portable fire extinguisher for use in the pilot compartment that is located within easy access of the pilot while seated. There must be at least one hand held fire extinguisher located conveniently in the passenger compartment of each airplane accommodating more than 6 and less than 30 passengers. Each extinguisher for use in a personnel compartment must be designed to minimize the hazard of toxic gas concentrations.
Halogenated Hydrocarbons
For over 45 years, halogenated hydrocarbons (Halons) have been practically the only fire extinguishing agents used in civil transport aircraft. However, Halon is an ozone depleting and global warming chemical, and its production has been banned by international agreement. Although Halon usage has been banned in some parts of the world, aviation has been granted an exemption because of its unique operational and fire safety requirements.
Halon has been the fire extinguishing agent of choice in civil aviation because it is extremely effective on a per unit weight basis over a wide range of aircraft environmental conditions. It is a clean agent (no residue), electrically nonconducting, and has relatively low toxicity.
Two types of Halons are employed in aviation: Halon 1301(CBrF3) a total flooding agent, and Halon 1211 (CBrClF2) a streaming agent. Class A, B, or C fires are appropriately controlled with Halons. However, do not use Halons on a class D fire. Halon agents may react vigorously with the burning metal.
NOTE: While Halons are still in service and are appropriate agents for these classes of fires, the production of these ozone depleting agents has been restricted. Although not required, consider replacing Halon extinguishers with Halon replacement extinguishers when discharged. Halon replacement agents found to be compliant to date include the halocarbons HCFC Blend B, HFC-227ea, and HFC-236fa.
Inert Cold Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an effective extinguishing agent. It is most often used in fire extinguishers that are available on the ramp to fight fires on the exterior of the aircraft, such as engine or APU fires. CO2 has been used for many years to extinguish flammable fluid fires and fires involving electrical equipment.
It is noncombustible and does not react with most substances. It provides its own pressure for discharge from the storage vessel, except in extremely cold climates where a booster charge of nitrogen may be added to winterize the system. Normally, CO2 is a gas, but it is easily liquefied by compression and cooling. After liquefaction, CO2 remains in a closed container as both liquid and gas. When CO2 is then discharged to the atmosphere, most of the liquid expands to gas. Heat absorbed by the gas during vaporization cools the remaining liquid to –110 °F, and it becomes a finely divided white solid, dry ice snow.
Carbon dioxide is about 16 times as heavy as air, which gives it the ability to replace air above burning surfaces and maintain a smothering atmosphere. CO2 is effective as an extinguishing agent primarily because it dilutes the air and reduces the oxygen content so that combustion is no longer supported. Under certain conditions, some cooling effect is also realized.
CO2 is considered only mildly toxic, but it can cause unconsciousness and death by suffocation if the victim is allowed to breathe CO2 in fire extinguishing concentrations for 20 to 30 minutes. CO2 is not effective as an extinguishing agent on fires involving chemicals containing their own oxygen supply, such as cellulose nitrate (used in some aircraft paints). Also, fires involving magnesium and titanium cannot be extinguished by CO2.
Dry Powders
Class A, B, or C fires can be controlled by dry chemical extinguishing agents. The only all purpose (Class A, B, C rating) dry chemical powder extinguishers contain monoammonium phosphate. All other dry chemical powders have a Class B, C U.S – UL fire rating only. Dry powder chemical extinguishers best control class A, B, and C fire but their use is limited due to residual residue and clean up after deployment.
Water
Class A type fires are best controlled with water by cooling the material below its ignition temperature and soaking the material to prevent re-ignition.
Cockpit and Cabin Interiors
Class A type fires are best controlled with water by cooling the material below its ignition temperature and soaking the material to prevent re-ignition.
All materials used in the cockpit and cabin must conform to strict standards to prevent fire. In case of a fire, several types of portable fire extinguishers are available to fight the fire.
The most common types are Halon 1211 and water.
Extinguisher Types
Portable fire extinguishers are used to extinguish fires in the cabin or flight deck. The Halon extinguishers are used on electrical and flammable liquid fires. Some transport aircraft also use water fire extinguisher for use on non-electrical fires.
The following is a list of extinguishing agents and the type (class) fires for which each is appropriate.
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Water—class A. Water cools the material below its ignition temperature and soaks it to prevent reignition.
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Carbon dioxide—class B or C. CO2 acts as blanketing agent. NOTE: CO2 is not recommended for hand-held extinguishers for internal aircraft use.
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Dry chemicals—class A, B, or C. Dry chemicals are the best control agents for these types of fires.
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Halons—only class A, B, or C.
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Halocarbon clean agents—only class A, B, or C.
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Specialized dry powder—class D. (Follow the recommendations of the extinguisher’s manufacturer because of the possible chemical reaction between the burning metal and the extinguishing agent.)
The following hand-held extinguishers are unsuitable as cabin or cockpit equipment.
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CO2
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Dry chemicals (due to the potential for corrosion damage to electronic equipment, the possibility of visual obscuration if the agent were discharged into the flight deck area, and the cleanup problems from their use)
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Specialized dry powder (it is suitable for use in ground operations)
Installed Fire Extinguishing Systems
Transport aircraft have fixed fire extinguishing systems installed in:
1. Turbine engine compartments
2. APU compartments
3. Cargo and baggage compartments
4. Lavatories
CO2 Fire Extinguishing Systems
Older aircraft with reciprocating engines used CO2 as an extinguishing agent, but all newer aircraft designs with turbine engines use Halon or equivalent extinguishing agent, such as halocarbon clean agents.
Halogenated Hydrocarbons Fire Extinguishing Systems
The fixed fire extinguisher systems used in most engine fire and cargo compartment fire protection systems are designed to dilute the atmosphere with an inert agent that does not support combustion. Many systems use perforated tubing or discharge nozzles to distribute the extinguishing agent.
High rate of discharge (HRD) systems use open-end tubes to deliver a quantity of extinguishing agent in 1 to 2 seconds. The most common extinguishing agent still used today is Halon 1301 because of its effective firefighting capability and relatively low toxicity (UL classification Group 6).
Non corrosive Halon 1301 does not affect the material it contacts and requires no cleanup when discharged. Halon 1301 is the current extinguishing agent for commercial aircraft, but a replacement is under development. Halon 1301 cannot be produced anymore because it depletes the ozone layer. Halon 1301 will be used until a suitable replacement is developed. Some military aircraft use HCL-125 and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is testing HCL-125 for use in commercial aircraft.
Containers
Fire extinguisher containers (HRD bottles) store a liquid halogenated extinguishing agent and pressurized gas (typically nitrogen). They are normally manufactured from stainless steel. Depending upon design considerations, alternate materials are available, including titanium.
Containers are also available in a wide range of capacities. They are produced under Department of Transportation (DOT) specifications or exemptions. Most aircraft containers are spherical in design, which provides the lightest weight possible.
However, cylindrical shapes are available where space limitations are a factor. Each container incorporates a temperature/pressure sensitive safety relief diaphragm that prevents container pressure from exceeding container test pressure in the event of exposure to excessive temperatures.
AIRCRAFT FIRE EXTINGUISHING BOTTLE LOCATION
AIRCRAFT FIRE EXTINGUISHING WORKING
Discharge Valves
Discharge valves are installed on the containers. A cartridge (squib) and frangible disk-type valve are installed in the outlet of the discharge valve assembly. Special assemblies having solenoid-operated or manually-operated seat-type valves are also available. Two types of cartridge disk-release techniques are used.
Standard release-type uses a slug driven by explosive energy to rupture a segmented closure disc. For high temperature or hermetically sealed units, a direct explosive impact-type cartridge is used that applies fragmentation impact to rupture a prestressed corrosion resistant steel diaphragm. Most containers use conventional metallic gasket seals that facilitate refurbishment following discharge.
DISCHARGE VALVE AND CARTAGE OR SQUIB
Pressure Indication
A wide range of diagnostics is utilized to verify the fire extinguisher agent charge status. A simple visual indication gauge is available, typically a helical bourdon-type indicator that is vibration resistant.
A combination gauge switch visually indicates actual container pressure and also provides an electrical signal if container pressure is lost, precluding the need for discharge indicators. A ground checkable diaphragm-type low-pressure switch is commonly used on hermetically sealed containers.
The Kidde system has a temperature compensated pressure switch that tracks the container pressure variations with temperatures by using a hermetically sealed reference chamber.
Two-Way Check Valve
Two-way check valves are required in a two-shot system to prevent the extinguisher agent from a reserve container from backing up into the previous emptied main container. Valves are supplied with either MS-33514 or MS-33656 fitting configurations.
Discharge Indicators
Discharge indicators provide immediate visual evidence of container discharge on fire extinguishing systems. Two kinds of indicators can be furnished: thermal and discharge. Both types are designed for aircraft and skin mounting.
AIRCRAFT FIRE EXTINGUISHING BOTTLE DISCHARGE INDICATION
Thermal Discharge Indicator (Red Disk)
The thermal discharge indicator is connected to the fire container relief fitting and ejects a red disk to show when container contents have dumped overboard due to excessive heat. The agent discharges through the opening left when the disk blows out. This gives the flight and maintenance crews an indication that the fire extinguisher container needs to be replaced before next flight.
Yellow Disk Discharge Indicator
If the flight crew activates the fire extinguisher system, a yellow disk is ejected from the skin of the aircraft fuselage.
This is an indication for the maintenance crew that the fire extinguishing system was activated by the flight crew, and the fire extinguishing container needs to be replaced before next flight.
Fire Switch
The engine and APU fire switches are typically installed on the center overhead panel or center console in the flight deck. When an engine fire switch is activated, the following happens: the engine stops because the fuel control shuts off, the engine is isolated from the aircraft systems, and the fire extinguishing system is activated. Some aircraft use fire switches that need to be pulled and turned to activate the system, while others use a push-type switch with a guard.
ENGINE FIRE PANEL
To prevent accidental activation of the fire switch, a lock is installed that releases the fire switch only when a fire has been detected. This lock can be manually released by the flight crew if the fire detection system malfunctions.
ENGINE FIRE SWITCH OPERATION
Cargo Fire Detection
Transport aircraft need to have the following provisions for each cargo or baggage compartment:
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The detection system must provide a visual indication to the flight crew within 1 minute after the start of a fire.
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The system must be capable of detecting a fire at a temperature significantly below that at which the structural integrity of the airplane is substantially decreased.
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There must be means to allow the crew to check, in flight, the functioning of each fire detector circuit.
Cargo Compartment Classification
Class A
A Class A cargo or baggage compartment is one in which the presence of a fire would be easily discovered by a crewmember while at his or her station and each part of the compartment is easily accessible in flight.
Class B
A Class B cargo, or baggage compartment, is one in which there is sufficient access in flight to enable a crewmember to effectively reach any part of the compartment with the contents of a hand fire extinguisher. When the access provisions are being used, no hazardous quantity of smoke, flames, or extinguishing agent enters any compartment occupied by the crew or passengers. There is a separate approved smoke detector or fire detector system to give warning at the pilot or flight engineer station.
Class C
A Class C cargo, or baggage compartment, is one not meeting the requirements for either a Class A or B compartment but in which:
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There is a separate approved smoke detector or fire detector system to give warning at the pilot or flight engineer station.
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There is an approved built-in fire extinguishing or suppression system controllable from the cockpit.
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There are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, flames, or extinguishing agent from any compartment occupied by the crew or passengers.
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There are means to control ventilation and drafts within the compartment so that the extinguishing agent used can control any fire that may start within the compartment.
Class E
Class E cargo compartment is one on airplanes used only for the carriage of cargo and in which:
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There is a separate approved smoke or fire detector system to give warning at the pilot or flight engineer station.
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The controls for shutting off the ventilating airflow to, or within, the compartment are accessible to the flight crew in the crew compartment.
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There are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, flames, or noxious gases from the flight crew compartment.
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The required crew emergency exits are accessible under any cargo loading condition.
Cargo Compartment Fire Detection and Extinguisher System
The cargo compartment smoke detection system gives warnings in the flight deck if there is smoke in a cargo compartment.
Each compartment is equipped with a smoke detector. The smoke detectors monitor air in the cargo compartments for smoke. The fans bring air from the cargo compartment into the smoke detector.
CARGO FIRE DETECTOR WARNING
Before the air goes in the smoke detector, in-line water separators remove condensation and heaters increase the air temperature.
SMOKE DETECTOR INSTALLATION
Smoke Detector System
The optical smoke detector consists of source light emitting diodes (LEDs), intensity monitor photodiodes, and scatter detector photodiodes. Inside the smoke detection chamber, air flows between a source (LED) and a scatter detector photodiode. Usually, only a small amount of light from the LED gets to the scatter detector. If the air has smoke in it, the smoke particles reflect more light on the scatter detector.
This causes an alarm signal. The intensity monitor photodiode makes sure that the source LED is on and keeps the output of the source LED constant. This configuration also finds contamination of the LED and photodiodes. A defective diode, or contamination, causes the detector to change to the other set of diodes. The detector sends a fault message.
The smoke detector has multiple sampling ports. The fan draw air from the sampling ports through a water separator and a heater unit to the smoke detector.
SMOKE DETECTOR SYSTEM
Cargo Compartment Extinguishing System
The cargo compartment extinguishing system is activated by the flight crew if the smoke detectors detect smoke in the cargo compartment. Some aircraft are outfitted with two types of fire extinguisher containers. The first system is the dump system that releases the extinguishing agent directly when the cargo fire discharge switch is activated. This action extinguishes the fire.
The second system is the metered system. After a time delay, the metered bottles discharge slowly and at a controlled rate through the filter regulator. Halon from the metered bottles replaces the extinguishing agent leakage. This keeps the correct concentration of extinguishing agent in the cargo compartment to keep the fire extinguished for 180 minutes.
The fire extinguishing bottles contain Halon 1301 or equivalent fire extinguishing agent pressurized with nitrogen.
Tubing connects the bottles to discharge nozzles in the cargo compartment ceilings.
The extinguishing bottles are outfitted with squibs. The squib is an electrically operated explosive device. It is adjacent to a bottle diaphragm that can break. The diaphragm normally seals the pressurized bottle. When the cargo discharge switch is activated, the squib fires and the explosion breaks the diaphragm. Nitrogen pressure inside the bottle pushes the Halon through the discharge port into the cargo compartment.
When the bottle discharges, a pressure switch is activated that sends an indication to the flight deck that a bottle has been discharged. Flow control valves are incorporated if the bottles can be discharged in multiple compartments. The flow control valves direct the extinguishing agent to the selected cargo compartment.
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The following indications occur in the cockpit if there is smoke in a cargo compartment:
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Master warning lights come on.
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Fire warning aural operates.
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A cargo fire warning message shows.
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Cargo fire warning light comes on.
The master warning lights and fire warning aural are prevented from operating during part of the takeoff operation.
CARGO FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM
Lavatory Smoke Detectors
Airplanes that have a passenger capacity of 20 or more are equipped with a smoke detector system that monitors the lavatories for smoke. Smoke indications provide a warning light in the cockpit or provide a warning light or audible warning at the lavatory and at flight attendant stations that would be readily detected by a flight attendant. Each lavatory must have a built-in fire extinguisher that discharges automatically. The smoke detector is located in the ceiling of the lavatory.
ENGINE FIRE SWITCH OPERATION
Lavatory Smoke Detector System
The lavatory smoke detector is powered by the 28-volt DC left/right main DC bus. If there is smoke in the sensing chamber of the smoke detector, the alarm LED (red) comes on. The timing circuit makes an intermittent ground. The warning horn and lavatory call light operate intermittently. The smoke detection circuit makes a ground for the relay.
The energized relay makes a ground signal for the overhead electronics unit (OEU) in the central monitoring systems (CMS). This interface gives these indications: lavatory master call light flashes, cabin system control panel (CSCP) and cabin area control panel (CACP) pop-up window shows, and the lavatory call chime operates.
Push the lavatory call reset switch or the smoke detector interrupt switch to cancel the smoke indications. If there is still smoke in the lavatory, the alarm LED (red) stays on. All smoke indications go away automatically when the smoke is gone
LAVATORY SMOKE DETECTOR DIAGRAM
Lavatory Fire Extinguisher System
The lavatory compartment is outfitted with a fire extinguisher bottle to extinguish fires in the waste compartment. The fire extinguisher is a bottle with two nozzles. The bottle contains pressurized Halon 1301 or equivalent fire extinguishing agent.
When the temperature in the waste compartment reaches approximately 170 °F, the solder that seals the nozzles melt and the Halon is discharged. Weighing the bottle is often the only way to determine if the bottle is empty or full.
